US Ports and Cybersecurity Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

US Ports and Cybersecurity - Research Paper Example Kevin Kelly1 (2011) asks this intriguing question, â€Å"What does technology want?† If certain aspects of the technium are preordained and certain aspects are contingent upon our choices, how do we know which are which? Systems theorist John Smart has suggested that we need a technological version of the Serenity Prayer.† The serenity prayer, written and popularized in the early 1930s by theologian Reinhold Niebuhr, asks God to help in changing the things which are difficult to change or â€Å"courage to change the things I can, and wisdom to know the difference.†2 According to Kelly, â€Å"Technology was invented from the time we were born†. But technology is under threat every second of the day. Individual files and organizational documents and secrets are under threat of losing with the click of a finger, if we are not careful. This essay is about the many problems of technology, specifically information technology (IT) infrastructures of US ports, and how it can survive amidst threats of viruses, worms, spams, malicious software and cyber criminality. Organizations must have installed technology and IT infrastructures in their systems, otherwise, they will lag behind in the stiff competition. Organizational information systems should also have anti-viruses and other necessary protection before they see themselves vulnerable to a new kind of attack, the virus attack. Ports are one of the busiest areas for businesses around the world. With an installed IT, tasks and activities are made easier. IT enables organizations to conduct multiple operations simultaneously, but the infrastructure must be secured because without s ecurity, viruses and the various risks will make the infrastructure a mess. Ports operate a network of businesses and firms, movement and distribution, processing and many activities, which must be applied and inputted to an effective software and IT. Function IT, as it is called in the literature, refers to information systems that help improve users’ functions and productivity in performing individual tasks. This important feature includes applications like computer-aided design (CAD) software, spreadsheet, word processors, and other e-learning tools and systems. In a port where ships dock and load and unload cargoes, where countless activities happen every minute and every second of the day, computers and softwares are a normal phenomenon. In a workplace where engineers constantly introduce product innovations and people depend on coordinated programs of activities, ports should have effective computer infrastructures. But there are people with criminal minds who, second b y second, devise plans to penetrate on other people’s computers, other people’s wealth, that they send viruses, worms, spam emails and malwares to the internet and destroy ports’ valued files. The role of the manager is significant to the attainment of the organization’s goals and objectives. Managers should have good and effective rapport with employees, but they have to understand what IT is and its role in the ever changing world of business. One of the important responsibilities of the manager is to manage the company’s information system. New business opportunities involving IT and the different functions of business are coming at a fast pace.3 Security awareness Studies have found that about 90% of organizations face information security investigation almost annually.4 Organizations have made moves to improve their information management systems and

The aims, methods and achievements of MLK and Malcolm X Essay Example for Free

The aims, methods and achievements of MLK and Malcolm X Essay Compare the aims, methods and achievements of MLK and Malcolm X. Which man do you think was most successful at achieving civil rights for African Americans in the 1960s? I would suggest that Martin Luther king was the more successful man in terms of achieving civil rights for African Americans in the 1960s. While this may seem a choice influenced by public image, I would suggest that there were issues with Malcolm Xs image and methodology that made it unlikely that he would ever be accepted (and thus, respected) by White America. I think that Martin Luther King, while viewed by some blacks with contempt for his relatively moderate attitude, genuinely evaluated the situation in which he was operating and suited his modus operandi to make it as beneficial as possible. As a result of this, I think that Martin Luther King made it easier for himself to achieve his aims of bringing about equality for African-Americans in the 1960s in America. I will, however, examine in greater detail the differences in the methodology of the men later on. Put simply, Martin Luther King aimed to ensure that black people were equal in America in the 1960s. Inequality was made manifest through segregation, whether in the guise of schooling, buses, or whites only benches. This stemmed mostly from Kings childhood and experiences as a young adult, one of which led to him being threatened with a gun for demanding service in a segregated restaurant. Kings aims were not all this simple, however. First, he had to factor in the point that he would need to reach the greatest number of people possible with his message, and make them receptive to it. I would suggest that this was a battle between the fight for civil rights and the dangers of playing Uncle Tom to Washington politicians. While King did liaise with President Kennedy, I would suggest that this was an accomplishment of Kings rather than one of his aims. This is because Kings main objective, I feel, was to influence Washington into passing civil rights laws, and talking with the Kennedy brothers was only a means to this end. Second, King aimed to influence politicians through grassroots movements rather than the dealings of smoke-filled rooms. I think that this can be observed in King choosing to demonstrate the plight of African-Americans through initiatives such as the 1961 freedom rides and the 1963 March on Washington. I would suggest that these activities exhibit essential differences in the aims of King and Malcolm X- that is to say that whilst Xs objectives were dependent on black on white hostility, Kings were rooted in egalitarianism. I would suggest that this made King more accessible, and thus helped his plight through the participation of many moderate blacks and white student activists. Kings methods were ones designed to capture the attention of Kennedy, and later Johnson, but whilst exercising caution and maximising participation. However, I think that King was not so much a true crusader as a brand for the Civil Rights Movement. As the US today is personified by its President, I think that the CRM needed an effective, moderate face that was not too black for White America. I would suggest that this is one of the few instances in which one could justify a comparison between Martin Luther King and current US President Barack Obama. For example, in the instance of the 1963 North Carolina sit-ins organised by the SNCC, King was effectively chosen as the face of the movement, a movement that was in fact initiated by educated students desperate for change. As this movement led to the desegregation of Atlantas schools, one could argue that King was in fact not the true leader of the Civil Rights Movement, but more like Orwells poster of Big Brother: omnipresent; benevol ent- a brand. One method used by King was the use of non-violent protest. Utilised in its earliest form in the Montgomery bus boycotts, I think that non-violent protest was the most effective manner with which black and civil rights activists could champion their cause. This is because non-violent protest did not provide white America with the ammunition to vilify Civil Rights activists (though many tried). This is because non-violent protest raised awareness while making it hard for police to use violence to disperse protesters. Also, I believe that such mass action made it difficult for politicians to ignore the plight of African-American people in the 1960s. While the NAACP may have taken on the Supreme Court through litigation, I think that if they had failed there would be no attention paid to the case. It would have been, I feel, business as usual. But the mass action used in initiatives such as the March on Washington in 1963 made black issues impossible to ignore, and helped black people experience solidarity and ubiquity in their anonymity and numbers. King himself proclaimed: The Negro is shedding his fear, and while this is something King was worried about, I think that this is something that was in fact brought about by King. Black people in America could now see that it was acceptable to feel insulted; angry and bitter about the injustices of slavery. Because of this, I would suggest that Martin Luther King succeeded in his aims as I would suggest it was his methodology of mass action that inspired black people to rise up, and the White House (and people) to sit up and listen. However, there was to be another character with what some today would consider a more direct influence on the position of black people in 1960s America. Malcolm X approached the Civil rights struggle in America in the 1960s in a very different manner to King indeed, and I would suggest that in spite of his iconographic status, he largely failed in his aims. X aimed to rail against the whole idea of demanding Civil Rights, suggesting that black and white men could never be truly equal. X regarded black people as Africans who just happened to be in America, and as such X took up a position described by Cornell as The basic aim to counter white supremacy, better known as Black Power. X advocated violence, and I would suggest that this was to result in a short term failure for X. This is because Xs white rivals, segregationalists and racists, would now find a legitimate excuse to be opposed to black people- violence reminiscent of a modern day terrorist group. I would draw parallels with terrorism because terrorist groups are not evil- they merely seek to advance an aim through violence, and are despised by the majority for it. Malcolm Xs methodology, I feel, caused short-term failure, yet it would be unwise to dismiss his efforts out of hand. In the late 1960s disaffected black youths flocked to Malcolm X because they felt King was playing Uncle Tom (especially following Kings poorly judged discussions with Chicagos Mayor Daley in 1966 that resulted in King appearing naive and ineffectual), and I think that this was the central tenet of Xs early philosophy- that of the angry young man. I think that Xs involvement with the Nation of Islam also helped Xs relations with disenchanted blacks, his rebellious and extremist views being ones that the frustrated and the angry could latch on to. However, I would suggest that the Nation of Islam was poor with regards to black/white relations and thus Malcolm X actually achieved little towards the real accomplishment of black Civil Rights (though I do indeed believe that X inspired a host of activists who may not have otherwise campaigned for them). In addition, I think Xs anti-integrationalist stance would do little to affect any sort of white-dominated legislation for the better. Indeed, X-inspired groups such as the Black Panthers were labelled as dangerous by the US government, particularly due to their McCarthyist-frightening beliefs, but also due to their advocacy of violence and separatism. One could draw parallels to Rastafarianisms call of back to Africa that I think equally alienated White contemporaries, who were- like it or not- the Kennedys; the Mayor Daleys, the Bull Connors- the people in power. I think this central lack of appeal to the white man was what made Malcolm X, in my eyes, largely a failure. I also th ink it regrettable that this appeal needed to have occurred, but it was truly required in this case. The methods used by Malcolm X, I feel, were in reality not so far removed from Kings as hypothesised by some. I would suggest that both King and X had relatively non-violent campaigns. While X advocated black supremacy, he in reality did similar things to King: suggested blacks join voter rolls; participated in sit-ins. Whilst the Black Panthers were inspired by X, I think he was always more of an orator than an activist, and that his easily attacked espousals of violence and his belief in the Doctrine of Yakub (which suggested that an ancient black scientist named Yakub created white men, and slavery was Allahs punishment for this) made him likely to fail in affecting mainstream white society. I would contend that a policy of non-violence was to prove crucial in the 1960s, and that a period of education of white America such as that seen in the cultural expansion of the 1920s Harlem Renaissance was important in the meeting of the target of Civil Rights. To conclude, I would suggest that while both Martin Luther King and Malcolm X had flaws which, ultimately, crippled the growth of the Civil Rights Movement, they both contributed in significantly different ways to the fight for black Civil Rights. While I would contend that the theological and occasionally violence beliefs of Malcolm X made him seem unacceptable to white America, I think that his effective martyrdom resulted in disaffected black youths returning to political activism after they felt shunned by what they perceived to be Uncle Tom behaviours on the part of King. One could, I feel, successfully argue that Xs increased appeal also came from his everyman upbringing in Harlem, and that black youths could not truly identify with a Southern minister. In addition,one could argue that Kings campaign depended on violence as much as Xs. If Kings activists and followers were not viciously suppressed, I doubt that moderate America would have eventually got round to championing their cause, evidenced by the fact that approximately a quarter of participants in the March on Washington 1963 were white. However, I would suggest that Kings populism was to raise a number of black activists and student dissenters that would result in white America being cowed by the influence of millions of African-Americans, and, finally, result in the Civil Rights that black America had been fighting for.

Cocaine Drug Abuse

Cocaine Drug Abuse Cocaine through the ages: from elixir to poison. Cocaine through ages: from elixir to poison. Abstract: Cocaine, a plant alkaloid derived from coca leaves is a potent stimulant of CNS and has local anesthetic action as well. Historically, it was ingested in the form of chewing coca leaves, to suppress hunger and fatigue. With discovery of its local anesthetic properties, cocaine was introduced into world of medicine and a local anesthetic, but over last few decades, gained popularity as drug of abuse. Cocaine carries with it great potential for addiction and abuse. It is administered through various routes, smoking free-base crack and intranasal inhalation being most popular. Its primarily metabolized in liver and distributed to all body tissues. Due to lipid nature it tends to concentrate in brain and adipose tissues with chronic administration. Its mainly eliminated through kidneys, but saliva and stools are also routes of excretion. A number of health hazards have been shown to be associated with cocaine use including, cardiac abnormalities, psychological disturbances, addiction pot ential and renal failure with or without rhabdomyolysis. Acute and chronic cocaine toxicities with sufficient collected data are included. Techniques for detecting cocaine in blood including enzyme linked immunoassay and POCT (Point of care screening tests) have also been discussed. An analysis of recent trends in cocaine uses have been studied and presented along with graphical illustrations of epidemiological evidence to support the data. Introduction and objective: Objective: to display how cocaine has evolved through time in its uses and available forms, from simple coca leaf chewing custom of South Americans in 2500 BC to modern forms of freebase-coke among others as one of the most commonly abused toxic drug. Methodology: Data was mainly collected from electronic resources, but text on immunology and pharmacology was also consulted. From electronic sources, I mainly used search engines using a number of keywords including ; history of cocaine, crack, pharmacokinetics of cocaine, mode of action , coca leaf, acute cocaine poisoning, chronic cocaine toxicity, Karl Koller, Sigmund Freud, Immunoassay, etc. I also went through a number of journals available online, and a number of researches conducted which related to cocaine. My aim was to find changes in cocaine use from its discovery to date, and show, with help of collected data, that it has moved in a negative direction. Brief history: Cocaine, use of which, according to some sources, date back to at least 1200 years, has now, rightfully, earned itself a place in drugs of abuse list among others like Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamine, etc. To date, cocaines uses have evolved from gaining popularity as topical anesthetic agent, and as component of energizing drinks to becoming one of the most abused drugs in the world. It is a powerfully addictive stimulant drug, which acts by interfering with cerebral and peripheral synaptic transmission among neurons. Mode of action has been described in greater detail later in pharmacodynamics section, but for brief introduction, it interferes with reuptake of, and thereby enhance duration of action of, monoamines, dopamine, serotonin and nor epinephrine Brain PF et.al (1989). It also produces membrane stabilizing effect, more commonly referred to as local anesthetic effect. Latter is achieved through modulation of voltage gated sodium channels and consequent blockade of sensory im pulses conduction from that part of the neuron to central nervous system. Brain PF et.al (1989) Earliest records of cocaine use reveal it to be a part of South American custom of chewing coca leaves. This use is believed to date back to 2500BC. Steven Cohen (1981) Practice of chewing mixture of tobacco and coca leaves was defined by Nicolà ¡s Monardes, in 1569, to induce â€Å"great contentment†. Cocaine is the active component of coca leaves, which also contains nicotine. Karch SB (1998). In 1859, Italian doctor, Paulo Montegazza, after witnessing coca use by natives of Peru, and getting mesmerized by it, decided to study the effects of cocaine on himself. After his studies he concluded his findings into a paper in which he declared cocaine to be medically useful in treating furred tongue in the morning, flatulence and whitening the teeth. Steven R. King (1992). In 1863, French chemist, Angelo Mariani, introduced popular cocavine, Vin Mariani. Vin Mariani wasproduced from mixture of 6 mg coca leaves per fluid ounce of Bordeaux wine. Courtwright DT (2001) Angelo Mariani, creator of Vin Mariani, which later became the hallmark of cocavines was honored with Vatican gold medal by Pope Leo XIII for this achievement. Ethanol, a component of vin mariani, is believed to extract cocaine from coca leaves. In 1884, the concept of cocavine was adopted by John S. Pemberton, with introduction of Pembertons French Wine Coca. After prohibitions imposed on cocaine use and manufacture of cocaine-containing products including cocavine in 1885, Pemberton introduced carbonated, non-alcoholic form of Vin Mariani and called it Coca-cola. Richard Ashley (1975). From 1906 onwards, however, after Pure Food and Drug act was passed, decocainised forms of coca were used for manufacture of coca-cola. In 1884, Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, recommended cocaine for treatment of morphine and alcohol addiction. A strategy that was later employed in 1879 when cocaine was used to treat morphine addiction. Steven Cohen (1981). In 1985, use of cocaine for induction of spinal anesthesia was accidentally discovered by American neurologist Leonard Corning while he studying the effects of cocaine on spinal nerves in a dog and accidentally pierced the dura matter. Corning JL (1885) Cocaine was, however, not used as anesthetic in spinal surgery until 1989 when first planned cocaine induced spinal anesthesia was administered in a surgery, by August Bier. A. Bier, (1899) Coca leaves have traditionally been used as suppressants for fatigue, thirst, and hunger. Its use has now been limited to Andean countries, where coca leaf chewing and coca tea consumption are still practiced. Industrially, coca leaves serve as source of drug cocaine, and in some cosmetic and food industries, including coca cola. Richard Ashley (1975) From 1980s to date, cocaine has gained popularity as drug of abuse, and has widely replaced heroin and other narcotics as drug of abuse, being used in different forms and administered via various routes. Richard Ashley (1975) Discovery: Discovery of cocaine, as local anesthetic, is claim to fame for Austrian ophthalmologist, Karl Koller. Kollers name is credited with demonstration of anesthetic effect of cocaine, in 1884. Karl Koller was a close associate of Sigmund Freud who in same year recommended cocaine to be employed in treatment for morphine and alcohol addiction. Hruby K (1986). Koller studied effects of cocaine on eye by applying the drug to his own eye and later pricking it with pins. He presented his findings to the Heidelberg Ophthalmological Society in same year. Hruby K (1986) After successfully experimenting on himself, Koller used cocaine as local anesthetic in eye surgeries, a use that continues to this day. Cocaine was later employed in other fields including dentistry for induction of local anesthesia, Today, however, cocaine has largely been replaced by other local anesthetic agents like lidocaine, xylocaine, bupivacaine, etc, which produce local anesthetic effect as efficiently and do not carry potential for abuse.Hruby K (1986) Isolation: Friedrich Gaedcke, aGerman chemist, was first person to successfully isolate cocaine from coca leaves, in 1855. An improved isolation process was, however, developed by Albert Niemann, a Ph.D. student at the University of Gà ¶ttingen in Germany, in 1859. Niemann wrote a dissertation describing steps of isolation titled, â€Å" ÃÅ"ber eine neue organische Base in den Cocablà ¤ttern† (On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves), which was published in 1969. F. Gaedcke (1855) Formal Chemical Name (IUPAC) for cocaine: (1R,5S)-methyl 8-methyl-3-(phenylcarbonyloxy)-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate. Medicalisation and popularization: Ever since its discovery, cocaines medical uses were quickly exploited through research and experimentation. Spanish physicians described first medical uses of cocaine as early as 1596, but the use of cocaine did not become more widespread until 1859, when Albert Niemann isolated the drug from coca leaves. Soon after it was isolated, cocaine was used to try to cure almost all the illnesses and maladies that were known to man. (Albert Niemann 1860) 1859s Montagezzis discovery about cocaine being useful in treating furred tongue in the morning, flatulence and whitening the teeth, was one of the earliest recorded studies that signified possible medical importance of cocaine. In 1879, Vassili von Anrep, of the University of Wà ¼rzburg, demonstrated analgesic properties of cocaine in an experiment that he conducted on a frog. He prepared two separate jars, one containing cocaine-salt solution, other containing salt water serving as control. One of frogs legs was submerged in cocaine solution and other in control followed by stimulation of leg in different ways. Reactions in two legs varied considerably. In the same year, cocaine began to be used in treatment of morphine addiction. The commercial production of purified cocaine gained momentum only in the mid-1880s. Its greatest medical value was in ophthalmology. Eye-surgery stood in desperate need of a good local anesthetic. This was because in eye operations it is often essential for a conscious patient to move his eye as directed by the surgeon without flinching. Karl Kollers demonstration of anesthetic properties of cocaine in 1884 was an important breakthrough establishing cocaines importance, medically when it was introduced in Germany as local anesthetic for eye surgery. (Altman Aj et.al 1985) Kollers discovery was later followed in 1985 by Leonard Cornings accidental demonstration of cocaines use in induction of spinal anesthesia, which became formally employed in spinal surgery in 1989 when first planned cocaine induced spinal anesthesia was administered by August Bier. Medical use of cocaine has largely been restricted to induction of local anesthesia. Even as local anesthetic agent, discovery of hazardous effects of cocaine use led to early development of safer alternative drugs like lidocaine, etc. One of its first non medical uses of cocaine was in military. In 1883 Theodor Aschenbrandt administered cocaine to members of the Bavarian army. It was found that the drug enhanced their endurance on maneuver. His positive findings were published in a German medical journal, which brought the effects of this wonder drug to a wider medical audience, including Sigmund Freud. Cocaine was sold as over the counter drug until 1916. It was widely used in tonics, toothache cures, patent medicines, and chocolate cocaine tablets. Prospective buyers were advised (in the words of pharmaceutical firm Parke-Davis) that cocaine could make the coward brave, the silent eloquent, and render the sufferer insensitive to pain. Cocaine was a popular ingredient in wines, notably Vin Mariani. Coca wine received endorsement from prime-ministers, royalty and even the Pope. The Vatican gold medal that Angelo Mariani received for it will forever signify the popularity of cocaine through that period of time. By the late Victorian, era use of cocaine had appeared as a vice in literature, for instance, Arthur Conan Doyles fictional Sherlock Holmes. . Number of admissions to drug treated programme in each year is plotted against time for both cocaine and heroin. Graph clearly displays the shift in trend from use of heroin towards cocaine. A combination gaining popularity is speedball, which is formulated by mixing heroin with cocaine. From 1980s to date, cocaine has gained popularity as drug of abuse, being used in different forms and administered via various routes, as evident by figure above which displays the escalation in crack / cocaine usage with concomitant reduction in heroin use. Prohibition: In first part of the twentieth century, with addictive properties of cocaine becoming more apparent with studies, cocaine found itself legally prohibited. Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914) outlawed unauthorized sales and distribution of cocaine incorrectly classifying it as a narcotic. In United Nations 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, cocaine was listed as Schedule I drug, thereby making its manufacture, distribution, import, export, trade, use and possession illegal unless sanctioned by the state. In 1970s controlled substances act, cocaine was listed as a Schedule II drug in United States. It carries high abuse potential but also serves medicinal purpose. It is a class A drug in the United Kingdom, and a List 1 drug of Opium law in the Netherlands. Modern Usage: In late 90s and early 2000s, crack became very popular among Americans and in past few years has also taken its toll on UK. According to an estimate, U.S cocaine market exceeded $ 70 billion in year 2005, demonstrating the popularity of this menace. News reports are flooded with celebrity arrests on charge of cocaine posession or use. A section on recent facts and figures related to cocaine discusses the modern trends in greater detail later. Addiction potential: Along with amphetamine, cocaine is one of the most widely abused drugs in the world. Powerful stimulant properties of cocaine are beyond doubt. By inhibiting neuronal reuptake of excitatory neurotransmitters, dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, cocaine enhances synaptic concentrations of these neurotransmitters in specific brain areas; nucleus accumbens and amygdala which are referred to as the reward center of brain. During 1980s, cocaine widely replaced heroin as drug of abuse, due to its euphoric properties, wide availability and low cost. Different forms and Routes of administration of cocaine: Smoking: Crack, freebase or smokable form of cocaine, was produced and became popular drug of abuse in 1980s. Earliest reports of crack use indicate an epidemic in Bahamas from 1980. By 1985, crack gained popular ranking among drug users across America.Crack is produced by mixing 2 parts cocaine hydrochloride with one part baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). It differs from cocaine hydrochloride in being more volatile, a property that makes it better suited for inhalation administration (smoking) than cocaine hydrochloride. Smoking freebase cocaine releases methylecgonidine, an effect not achieved with insufflation or injection (described later), thereby making it a specific test marker for freebase cocaine smokers. Studies suggest that methylecgonidine is more harmful to heart, liver and lungs than other byproducts of cocaine. Inhalation leads to rapid absorption of cocaine into bloodstream via lungs, reaching brain within five seconds of ingestion. Following rush exceeds snorting in intensity but does not last long. Oral: Ancient tradition of South Americans to chew coca leaves in same manner is tobacco, is another method of cocaine consumption. Alternatively, coca leaves may be consumed like tea by mixing with liquid. Coca leaf consumers have raised a controversy over whether it should be abandoned or not. Rationale behind this controversy is that strong acid in our stomach hydrolyzes cocaine, attenuating its effects on brain; therefore, unless it is taken with an alkaline substance, such as lime, which neutralizes stomachs acid, cocaine intake should not be criminalized. Cocaine is also used as oral anesthetic, both medically and unofficially. Cocaine powder is applied to gums to numb the gingiva and teeth. Colloquial terms for this route of administration are; numbies, gummies and cocoa puffs. Another method for oral administration, commonly known as snow bomb, is to pack cocaine in rolled up paper and swallowing it. Insufflation: Colloquial terms for which are; snorting, sniffing, or blowing is believed to be most commonly employed method of cocaine ingestion in west. Cocaine is poured on a flat, hard surface and divided into fine powder before being insufflated in â€Å"bumps†, â€Å"lines†, or â€Å"rails†. Devices used as aid in insufflation are known as â€Å"tooters†. Rolled up banknotes, hollowed-out pens, cut straws, pointed ends of keys, specialized spoons, long fingernails, and (clean) tampon applicators may all be used a tooters. Injection: This achieves the greatest bioavailability, 100%, in shortest span of time, since drug is directly administered into bloodstream saving time and reduced bioavailability that occurs with drug absorption from site of drug administration into bloodstream. Resultant rush is intense and rapid. Risk of contracting blood-borne infections is greatest. â€Å"Speedball†, a mixture of cocaine with heroin used intravenously is a popular and dangerous method of cocaine ingestion. It claims credit for many deaths, including celebrities like John Belushi, Chris Farley ,Mitch Hedberg, River Phoenix and Layne Staley. ADME Pharmacokinetics: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion of Cocaine. Before beginning discussion about pharmacokinetics or ADME of cocaine, table below summarizes the relationship of route of administration with onset of action, time taken to achieve peak effect, duration of action and half life. (Clarke, 1986) Absorption: Absorption refers to movement of drug from site of administration into bloodstream.As with any drug, absorption of cocaine depends on various factors and varies considerably with them. Factors which influence drug absorption include; drug formulation, route of administration, lipid solubility, pH of the medium, blood supply and surface area available for absorption. As evident from tabulated figures above, cocaine differs greatly in onset of action varying between 7 seconds up to 10 minutes from one route of administration to another. This is a factor of absorption of drug which depends on route of administration. Each route is separately discussed below in greater details. (Clarke, 1986). Orally administered cocaine: Cocaine induces vasoconstriction in vessels supplying oral mucosa and resultant reduction in blood supply slows down its absorption by decreasing surface area from which drug is absorbed. Therefore when orally administered, drug is slowly absorbed into bloodstream, taking roughly 30 minutes. Absorption is also incomplete; roughly one third of administered dose is absorbed. Due to slow absorption, onset of action is also delayed and peak effect is, however, not achieved until about 50-90 minutes after administration. Effect is, however, longer lasting, roughly 60 minutes after attainment of peak effect. Another factor affecting absorption of orally administered cocaine is pH of the stomach. As previously mentioned, stomach acid hydrolyzes cocaine, resulting in inadequate and incomplete absorption. To improve absorption it is common practice to take cocaine along with an alkaline liquid to neutralize acidic pH. Insufflations: Insufflations results in coating of the mucosa covering sinuses with cocaine, from where it is absorbed. Absorption is similar to that from oral cavity, cocaine induced vasoconstriction beneath mucosa results in slow and incomplete absorption (30-60%). Efficiency of absorption increases with concentration of drug. According to a study, time taken to reach peak effect via this route of administration averages 14.6 minutes. Injection: Injected cocaine is directly administered into bloodstream eliminating need for absorption. According same study, as mentioned for insufflation, time taken to reach peak effect of cocaine through injection averaged 3.1 minutes, roughly five times less than time for insufflation. Smoking: Smoking crack delivers large quantities of the drug to the lungs, resultant absorption is rapid and effects created are comparable to intravenous administration. These effects, which are felt almost immediately after smoking, are intense and last for 5-10 minutes. According to Perez-Reyes et al, 1982, volunteers who smoked 50 mg of cocaine base in a controlled study experiment achieved rapidly elevated plasma cocaine level compared to intravenous cocaine administration. Distribution: Following absorption into bloodstream, cocaine is distributed, via blood, to all body tissues including vital organs like brain, lungs, liver, heart, kidneys and adrenals. It crosses both blood-brain and placental barrier. Being lipid soluble, it easily traverses biological membranes via simple diffusion. It is believed to accumulate in brain and adipose tissue with repeated administration, owing to its lipid nature. In an experiment, distribution and kinetics of cocaine in human body were studied using Positron Emission Topography (PET) technique with radioactively labeled (carbon-11) cocaine on 14 healthy male subjects. Rate of uptake and clearance were found to vary among organs. Following results were obtained for time, in minutes, taken by radioactively labeled cocaine to reach peak value in following organs: Lungs: 45 seconds. Heart and Kidneys: 2-3 minutes. Adrenals: 7-9 minutes. Liver: 10 minutes. Liver, which is the key site for metabolism of cocaine is where distribution is most sluggish, increasing the half-life of cocaine. The Journal of Nuclear Medicine ( 1992 ) Metabolism: As already mentioned, cocaine is primarily metabolised in liver. It is estimated to get metabolized within two hours of administration. Half-life varies between 0.7 1.5 hours (Clarke, 1986), depending on route of administration among various other factors. There are three possible routes for bio-transformation of cocaine. Ester linkages in cocaine are hydrolyzed by plasma pseudocholinesterases and hepatic enzymes, human liver carboxylesterase form 1 (hCE-1)and human liver carboxylesterase form 2 (hCE-2). Benzoyl group is eliminated to produce ecgonine methyl ester. This is the major route for metabolism of cocaine. A secondary route, suggested by Fleming et al. 1990, proposes spontaneous hydrolysis, possibly non-enzymatic, followed by demethylation to produce benzoylecgonine. N-demethylation of cocaine is a minor route which leads to formation of norcocaine. Final degradation of metabolites yields ecgonine. Principal inactive metabolites are; benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, and ecgonine itself. Norcocaine is an active metabolite and may reveal itself in acute intoxication. Metabolism of cocaine may be influenced by a number of factors: Alcohol:When cocaine is co-administered with alcohol a compound called Cocaethylene is formed. Cocaethylene is associated with an increased risk of liver damage and premature death. Pregnancy. Liver disease. Aged men. Congenital cholinesterase deficiency. In all the aforementioned conditions, except alcohol, rate of cocaine metabolism is reduced, leading to elevated levels and duration of action of cocaine, enhancing its harmful effects of on the body. Following is a schematic representation of metabolic pathways of cocaine. According to Andrew (1997) have found that the continuous use of alcohol with cocaine produce cocaethylene which is similar in the action of cocaine but it has more blood stream concentration by three to five times than cocaine as a result of its high half life. Its much attractive to be used for abuse as a result of slower removal from the body. Different types of side effects are associated with cocaethylene like liver damage, seizure and immuno compromised functioning . Cocaethylene has more possibility for sudden death by 18 25 times than using cocaine alone . Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) has been implicated as being important in metabolism of cocaine, even though it has limited capacity to fully hydrolyze cocaine. BChE is specially essential for cocaine detoxification. A lot of research has been done to study the effect of employing this enzyme in cocaine detoxification and in anti-cocaine medications. Cocaine are hydrolyzed by human BChE in a slow rate , however, in university of Nebraska medical center the scientist at molecular biology and biochemistry have developed a mutant (A328Y) of human butyrylcholinesterase, which promises four fold greater efficiency in accelerating cocaine metabolism. Elimination or excretion: 1-9% of cocaine is excreted unaltered in urine along with metabolites, ecgonine methyl ester, benzoylecgonine, and ecgonine. Unchanged cocaine may also be eliminated through GI tract and/or be excreted in saliva. Most of the parent drug is eliminated from plasma within 4 hours after administration but metabolites may remain detectable for up to 144 hours after administration. Elimination of cocaine via kidneys is enhanced by acidification of urine. As already mentioned, cocaine easily traverses placental barrier, and the active metabolite, norcocaine is believed to persist in amniotic fluid for up to 5 days. In lactating mothers, cocaine metabolite can be found and presets for longer time up to 36 hours after the first administration and it will be found after they excreted into maternal milk. On the other hand, it will be eliminated very fast through exhalation or vapor when it is administrated through smokes. Ambre J et.al (1988) In an experiment, the investigations of chronic cocaine oral administration effects in those healthy volunteers having a history of cocaine abuse were continued. There were sixteen daily sessions of oral cocaine administration while subjects were kept in a controlled clinical ward. In every session subjects received five equal doses of oral cocaine at one hour interval. Throughout session, the doses of cocaine were administrated by an elevating rate starting from 100 mg as an initial dose (500 mg/ day) reaching to 400 mg (2 g/day) by a rate of increase of 25 mg/ dose/ session (125 mg / session). Urine specimens were collected throughout the study while at the end of the study specimens like saliva and plasma were periodically collected during the one week withdrawal phase and during the dosing session. The analysis of cocaine and cocaine metabolite were carried out by solid phase extraction and followed by gas chromatographic mass spectrometric analysis in the SIM mode. ARE is defin ed as a method or plots used to calculate the Half-lives of urinary elimination for cocaine and cocaine metabolites which stand for ( the amount remaining to be excreted ) plots. The urinary elimination for cocaine and cocaines metabolites in the Result obtained yielded two phases. An initial elimination phase during withdrawal which was has the same elimination pattern observed after acute dosing, and a terminal phase. Results were as follows: Initial phase: Mean plasma cocaine elimination half-life: 1.5  ± 0.1 h. Mean salivary cocaine elimination half-life: 1.2  ± 0.2 h. Mean urinary cocaine elimination half-life: 4.1  ± 0.9 h. Terminal phase: Mean urinary cocaine elimination half-life: 19  ± 4.2 h. A terminal elimination phase was also observed for cocaine metabolites with half-life estimates ranging from 14.6 to 52.4 h, which greatly exceeded previous estimates from studies of acute cocaine administration. This experiment shows that with chronic use, cocaine accumulates in the body with resultant prolonged terminal elimination phase for itself and its metabolites. Like any pharmacokinetic feature of a drug, elimination may also be influenced by various factors. Since renal elimination is major route for cocaine excretion, state of renal function is essential determinant of efficiency of elimination. Patients with poor renal function are much more likely to develop toxicity than those with properly functioning kidneys. Also, as already mentioned, acidification of urine accelerates the elimination of cocaine from the body. Drummer O.H et.al ( 2001) Pharmacodynamics of cocaine: Mechanism of action. Cocaine mediates its actions through two basic mechanisms: Inhibition of re-uptake of monoamines; dopamine, nor adrenalin, and serotonin. Blockade of sodium channels. As previously stated, a major breakthrough in field of surgery was discovery of cocaine and establishment of its use as a local anesthetic. All local anesthetics achieve their effect by same mechanism, known as membrane stabilizing effect. They achieve this by blocking the voltage gated sodium channels in neuronal membranes. Figure 1.0 shows the action of cocaine on sodium channels. Nerves carry impulses in the form of action potentials. Conduction of action potential involve a wave of depolarization, followed by repolarization, to travel along the nerve fiber. Depolarization, movement of membrane potential away from resting potential, is achieved through opening of voltage gated sodium channels and consequent influx of sodium. Local anesthetics reversibly reduce the rate of depolarization and repolarization by blocking these voltage gated sodium channels and eventually, impulse conduction is completely obliterated. Since local anesthetics prevent depolarization of membranes, membrane potential stays near resting levels; this is why it is called membrane stabilizing effect. Local anesthetic drugs make the onset of neuronal blockade faster especially in rapidly firing neurons when they target open sodium channels which is known as state dependent blockade. Local anesthetic action of cocaine is pH dependant. Potency and rate of action tends to decrease with the pH. Inhibition of re-uptake of monoamines; dopamine, nor adrenalin, and serotonin. Image above, taken from web, clearly demonstrates the action of cocaine (shown as yellow block in the figure) on dopamine re-uptake. Figure on the left shows normal process of synaptic transmission from a dopaminergic nerve terminal. Dopamine is secreted by the nerve terminal into synaptic cleft and subsequently binds to its receptor on post synaptic membrane. This is followed by its re-uptake via dopamine re-uptake transporter on neuronal membrane back into nerve terminal where it is degraded by MAO (Monoamine oxidase) into monoamines. Figure on right shows similar synapse, in presence of cocaine. Cocaine binds to dopamine re-upta

On A Friday :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   On a Friday   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  It was a cool sunny Friday morning, the air was crisp blended with a hint of winter. There was smell of warm fresh oatmeal, bacon, and scrambled eggs. The smell made its way into my room. Although it was early I still decided to get up and see what was brewing in the kitchen.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I got up out of bed and shuffled in my slippers to where the scent was originating. As I walked on over, I tripped over something, my hands broke my fall. I looked toward on what tripped me, then there it was, a giant armor-wearing, sword-bearing dolphin. I paused for one moment. Then the giant dolphin said, â€Å" Now I have you!† I paused for one more moment.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The warrior whale then said, â€Å" My name is Derk the Dolphin! I have been sent by the conclave of the ocean to destroy you.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I then asked him â€Å"why me?†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He replied â€Å" you have consumed two times the amount of fish than a normal human in the past week, and now I have been sent to cease your fish eating!†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Shocked with Derk’s answer, I curiously asked myself, â€Å" How much fish did I eat this week?† I started to remember. Fish pieces at school, a filet-o-fish sandwich after school, trout almandine at home, and more.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At that point, I remembered the scent of warm oatmeal, bacon and eggs. I asked Derk what this had to do with the fish problem. He said. â€Å" Using my knowledge about the human diet and psychology, I used the food as bait.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   At the point that he mentioned the word â€Å"bait,† I started to snicker under my breath. Derk stared at me with a â€Å"don't you dare laugh† look. Then I thought back on the prepared morning meal, and I wondered how Derk made the food. I turned to the large porpoise, but as I was beginning to ask him, he cut me off sharply. He then insisted on reeling off a speech about his life. â€Å"I have been on many missions, killed many fish consuming humans, blah bablah blah blah.....†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   At this point, I had lost interest in his gibberish, and had began to try to remember what had happened on wrestling last night. After a few minutes, Derk had realized that I had not being paying any attention to his speech; this made the giant dolphin very mad.

Exploratory Paper

Exploratory Paper-Revise English 1302/July 4th On-line Class 20 July 2011 Unhealthy Food Banning From Schools Presently, children in Los Angeles Schools are being denied chocolate milk due to an unhealthy food ban. According to an L. A. Times article, chocolate milk being served in Los Angeles public schools has as much sugar as a cup of regular Coke (Macvean, par. 9). Such findings have resulted in chocolate milk, which accounts for more than half of the milk consumed in Los Angeles public schools, being banned on July 1, 2011.So, why are Los Angeles Schools and other schools in the nation enforcing unhealthy food bans? It is not surprising that Los Angeles and many school districts in the country have been introducing strict bans on unhealthy foods due to an alarming problem with childhood obesity. The problem became more apparent when a national study conducted by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) found that one in three American children attending public schools were reported to be obese (Chase, par. 7).Most of the blame for the alarming ratio of student obesity was directed to â€Å"Junk† foods and sedentary activity. In response, Los Angeles schools and many other schools in the country have made it a mission to offer their students ealthier menus and encourage good eating habits largely by banning food items that are deemed unhealthy. The crusade to ban unhealthy foods from schools has had its fair share of critics, primarily by the producers of the labeled snack and soda foods who argue that banning their products will not solve the obesity problem that is currently affecting children.They claimed it is not there product, but the lack of exercise is the cause of obesity. In response to the obesity issue, producers such as Pepsi-Cola have generously provided large monitory donations to school physical education programs. School administrators and student organizations themselves have argued that food bans on snacks and sodas would create a fin ancial burden for schools, and is the wrong way to target children eating habits.One major concern is that unhealthy food bans in schools will harm school fundraising efforts for sports programs and school bands that have relied on extra revenue from sodas and candy sales. According to an article in Education Week by Linda Jacobson, 30 percent of California high schools that generated income from such products each raised more than $125,000 a year (23). Korey Capozza of Prevention magazine reported that the average teenager consumes almost two cans of soda per day that are usually purchased from a school vending machine (par. 1).An average two soda consumptions could generate thousands, or even millions of dollars in soda-company incentives to a school district's budget. A popular protester of such policies that ban unhealthy food is political conservative icon Sarah Palin. While visiting a private school in Pennsylvania she made a clear point about where she stood on the matter are losing their rights for an occasional classroom treat†like her cookies. Her focus was to push for laissez-faire, which would prohibit any government controls on what children can and cannot eat at school.Palin argued that government control on school foods is an assault on the American way of life, â€Å"On freedom and simple pleasures. On wholesome childhood delights and†¦ the integrity of the family' Oudith, par. 2). Despite debate, the popular trend by local governments in dealing with childhood obesity continues to be the banning of unhealthy foods in schools under the idea that this will encourage schools to provide nutritional meals and teach hildren how to become healthy eaters.To some degree, states like New York and California have a zero tolerance policy on unhealthy foods that can be sold or consumed on school premises. Both states also have extreme foods policies, which prohibit bake sales, treats given by teachers, and birthday cakes in the classrooms (Brow n, par. 2). A public school in Chicago has even banned the lunches students bring from home unless they have a medical excuse ensuring they will only eat the food provided by the school cafeteria (Eng, par. 5). According to an article in CQResearcher, many studies have found that eating habits start at a young age and the author of the article, Alan Greenblatt, believes that because of this, schools can play an important role in combating obesity (73). Greenblatt added that food controls is not the only solution and cautions that children will more or less fill up on unhealthy food outside the school (75). He also purposed that unhealthy school food bans should also include an increase in physical exercise and education about eating healthy that will also involve the students' parents to encourage them to prepare ealthy foods at home (Greenblatt 78).The federal government has also lent its attention on the problem of childhood obesity and has supported state government efforts to ba n unhealthy foods from schools so much so that in July of 2011, President Barrack Obama signed the child nutrition bill which places a national ban on selling candy, sugary soda, salty and fatty food in school snack bars, vending machines, and a la carte cafeteria lines (Severston, par. 1). This measure by the federal government has emphasized the argument that unhealthy food bans in schools are too intrusive nd even go against American values.The only clear conclusion in the debates involving child obesity is that something has to be done by somebody. Why not start teaching children to eat well in a place where they do most of their learning? For the fact schools are where children spend most of their time, and makes logical sense to lay the foundation for healthy habits there. It is also uncertain whether unhealthy foods on the long run will create financial difficulties for the schools or force student to eat those banned items outside of school.Nevertheless, schools can probably enerate extra revenues sales if vending machines are refitted with healthier alternatives, such as granola bars and water. This will also motivate the producers of â€Å"Junk foods† to provide and advertise healthier products to children. Hopefully a healthy eating trend among children and adolescents can start with no â€Å"Junk† food venting machines. As far as â€Å"laissez-faire† is concerned, I have no objection to the government showing concern about what our children eat in our schools and taking on the obesity problem head-on to help improve the quality of life in our society.

The Difference Between Design and Utility Patents

The Difference Between Design and Utility Patents A design patent protects only the ornamental appearance of an invention, not its utilitarian features. A utility patent would protect the way an article is used and works. It can be very confusing to understand the difference between a design patent and other types of intellectual property. Understanding Utility Patents It can get tricky because while design and utility patents provide separate types of protection, the utility and ornamentally of an invention are not easily separable. Inventions have both functional and ornamental characteristics and you can apply for both a design and a utility patent for the same invention. Moreover, if the design does provide utility for an invention (for example; the ergonomic shape design of a keyboard makes it useful as an invention that provides comfort and reduces carpal tunnel syndrome) then you would apply for a utility patent to protect the design. Understanding Copyrights Design patents protect the novel ornamental features of a utilitarian invention. Copyrights can also protect things that are ornamental, however, copyrights do not have to protect useful things for example, a fine art painting or sculpture. Understanding Trademarks Design patents can be filed for the same subject matter protected by a trademark. However, two different set of laws apply to patents and trademarks. For example, if the shape of a keyboard was protected by a design patent then anybody copying your shape would be infringing upon your patent rights. If the shape of your keyboard was trademark registered, anybody copying your keyboard shape and causing confusion for consumers (i.e. causing you to lose sales) would be infringing upon on your trademark. Legal Definition of Design According to the USPTO: A design consists of the visual ornamental characteristics embodied in, or applied to, an article of manufacture. Since a design is manifested in appearance, the subject matter of a design patent application may relate to the configuration or shape of an article, to the surface ornamentation applied to an article, or to the combination of configuration and surface ornamentation. A design for surface ornamentation is inseparable from the article to which it is applied and cannot exist alone. It must be a definite pattern of surface ornamentation, applied to an article of manufacture. The Difference Between the Invention and the Design An ornamental design may be embodied in the entire invention or only a part of the invention. The design could be ornamentation applied to the surface of an invention. Note: When preparing your design patent application and creating your patent drawings; if a design is just surface ornamentation, it must be shown applied to an article in the patent drawings, and the article must be shown in broken lines, as it forms no part of the claimed design. Be Aware There is a big difference between a design and utility patent, realize that a design patent may not give you the protection desired. An unscrupulous invention promotion company may mislead you in this way.